Some extracts on research done surrounding grass-root community participation within tourism development in rural
A REVIEW OF LESSONS LEARNED TO INFORM CAPACITY-BUILDING FOR SUSTAINABLE NATUREBASED TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN THE EUROPEAN
SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT INITIATIVE PILOT PROGRAMME”
Half-thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
MASTERS OF EDUCATION (Environmental Education) of
by Brian Bradley Wright July 2005 Supervisor: Professor Heila Lotz-Sisitka
This study indicates that power-knowledge relations were reflected in the EU Programme’s development ideology by an exclusionary development approach, which lacked a participatory ethos. This exclusionary approach did not support an enabling environment for capacity-building. (p.i, abstract, par 2)
The study argues that the underlying motivation for the exclusionary EU development ideology in the programme is driven by a risk management strategy. This approach allows the EU to hold power in the development process, whereas, an inclusionary participative development methodology would require a more in-depth negotiation with stakeholders, thereby requiring the EU to relinquish existing levels of power and control. (p.i, abstract, par 3)
This study recommends an interactive-participative methodology for programme design and implementation, if an enabling environment for capacity-building is to be created. In addition, all programme stakeholders must share contractual accountability for programme outcomes. This requires a paradigm shift in the EU development ideology to an inclusionary methodology. (p.i, abstract, par 4)
2.2 Power-knowledge Relationships
International donor-funded programmes, aimed primarily at southern developing countries, generally emanate from the economically powerful Northern countries, and often bring programme designs, social processes and management structures that may not be relevant, or programme objectives that are not achievable within the programme time frame and resource allocation. Rew (1997:103) supports this statement, noting that in a review of 113 international development aid programme evaluation reports, available in the
Babikwa (ibid) argues that instead of aiming to level power gradients from a technicist viewpoint of empowerment (which reflects a sovereign view of power – see Popkewitz & Brennan, 1998), one should engage in a process of mutual empowerment from all angles, and enable all role players to increase knowledge of and about each other. This reflects Foucault’s productive view of power as deployment, which focuses on “… the concrete practices through which power circulates and is productive in daily life” (Popkewitz & Brennan 1998:20).
“People know what they do; they frequently know why they do; they frequently know why they do what they do; but what they don’t know, is what they do does”, i.e. often they are not conscious of the effects of power associated with their work. (p11 - 13, section 2.2, par 2)
2.4.5 Impact of Development Aid
Sogge(2002:8) He argues that on many occasions evidence indicated that “… foreign aid has been a problem posing as a solution”. He (ibid:185) believes that aid has not been a prime candidate to promote collective self-esteem. “It tends to locate the problem in the incapacities (underdeveloped, backwardness, and so on) of the people it is supposed to help. Their shortcomings demonstrate the need for aid and even trusteeship”. These approaches risk patronizing people, boosting the prestige of the outsider’s solutions and belittling local solutions. (p26)
Sheth (1997:330) argues that this approach should not be “… derived deductively from a received theory, not even the theory based on the global alternative critiques of development”. Instead, it should emerge from within the concrete struggles of the people themselves. The emphasis is, therefore, placed on decision-making, not only concerning the process, but also in defining development goals, with a social justice orientation. (p27)
2.5 Nature-based Tourism (Ecotourism)
2.5.1 Defining Nature-based Tourism (
The United Nations Environmental Protection Programme (UNEP) (2002), in supporting the year of ecotourism, suggests the following principles: educational; generally small volume locally owned businesses minimizing impact on the natural and socio-cultural environment; (p28 par1)
Responsible tourism requires both the government and private-sector to develop meaningful economic linkages with local community: to respect and invest in local cultures and protect them from commercial over exploitation. It further states that local communities have a responsibility to become actively involved, practise sustainable development and provide a safe and secure environment for tourists. (p28 par2)
2.5.2 Nature-based Tourism and Risks
Patterson sums up the endogenous people’s experience of tourism on the islands, (hawaien) “I have seen the oppression and the exploitation of an ‘out-of-control’ global industry that has no understanding of limits or responsibility or concern for the host people of a land … or the land … All is not well in paradise” (Mowforth & Munt 1998). (p29 par2)
Mowforth and Munt (1998:237) argue that over the last thirty years
They continue to argue that seldom do local people’s benefits, derived from tourism, outweigh the overall costs to the communities receiving tourism. Olindo (1999) provides an example of this statement, commenting that
This financial success, however, hides a multitude of social and environmental problems. The challenge, therefore, as argued by Mowforth and Munt (1998) lies in developing the capacity to empower local government and community to take control of tourism development, through informed and responsible decision-making. (p30, par2)
Table 2.1: Forms of Participation (Pretty 1995)
(p34) The worst kind:
Manipulative Participation
Participation is simply a pretence - beneficiary group representatives are appointed and not elected and have no power.
Passive Participation
People participate by being told what has been decided or has already happened. It involves unilateral announcements by administration or project management, with any information being shared belonging only to external professionals.
The best kind:
Interactive Participation
People participate in joint analysis, development of action plans and formation or strengthening of local institutions. Participation is seen as a right, not just as a means to achieve the programme objectives. The process involves interdisciplinary methodologies that seek multiple perspectives and make use of systemic and structured learning processes. As groups take control over local decisions and determine how available resources are used, so they have a stake in maintaining structures and practices.
Selfmobilization
People participate by taking initiatives independently of external institutions to change systems. They develop contacts with external institutions for resource and technical advice they need, but retain control over how resources are used. Self-mobilization can spread if governments and NGO’s provide an enabling framework of support. Such self-initiated mobilization may or may not challengeexisting distributions of wealth and power.
As indicated in Section 2.5.4 above, Mowforth and Munt (1998:238) argue that local communities, who are an essential component of the sustainability debate, are often left out of the “… planning, decision-making and operations of tourism schemes”. However, an increasing number of studies of development projects indicate that ‘participation’ is essential to the success of projects. In addition, Mowforth and Munt (ibid:240) argue that although development proposals are often commendable in their intent, the push for local participation (that is meant to break the existing patterns of power and unequal development participation) comes from a position of First World power. Mowforth and Munt (ibid:240), therefore, argue that only forms of participation that originate from within the local communities themselves may level the power gradient. (p34 last par)
Sogge (2002:96) argues that participation is supposed to enhance the power of beneficiaries, however, in practice, participation can often amount to little more than swinging a shovel and following somebody else’s plan, with control and not self-determination, being the purpose of the programme. An example of this is identified in a United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) project in
For this change to happen, the following is required: an “… open-ended quest and interaction of free and questioning persons for the understanding of reality” (ibid:128).
In addition, this approach requires “… genuine processes of dialogue and interaction” that should “… replace the present subject-object relationships between interveners and the intervened, thereby enabling the oppressed to act as the free subjects of their own destiny” (ibid:121). (p35 last par)
Strategy framework for growth and development 2004-2014
2.3 Lessons learned:
The establishment of effective local government to deliver services, to support the poor in taking ownership of development proseses,….
3.2.3 development of tourism:
also, the broader south African experience of community based ventures needs to be integrated into tourism planning in the province, particularly to ensure that host communities retain maximum control of their cultural and, indeed, their natural resources
3.4 a strategic approach to growth and development
a third strategic priority id the development of the provinces tourism potential, especially the promotion of community based tourism that will allow for the broader distribution of the benefits of tourism.
7.1 Systematic poverty eradication through a holistic, integrated and multi-dimentional approach to pro-poor programming:
Such groups lack the ability to influence decision-making and thus poverty reduction strategies do not respond, or respond inappropriately, to their needs. Establish greater control over and access to decision-making processes by poor people. Strengthen the income, asset and skills capabilities of the poor.
7.1.2 Approach
It is based on a determination to address the human dimension of poverty, especially gender, and on a recognition of the need to mobilize social partnerships to ensure that resources are well targeted and to increase the power of the poor in the fight against poverty.
Strengthen community management and organization of own initiatives and external programmes.
Enhance democratic participation by the poor.
Community – based forms of tourism are most likely to optimize benefits to host communities….Linkages between established and emerging tourism enterprises should be supported, particularly in support of an integrated provincial tourism marketing strategy.
7.4 Human Resource Development
Government intervention is needed to ensure equity and justice with respect to access to jobs, training, treatment at work, and payment, as well as with respect to the broader welfare of the poor and marginalized.
P7 – The white paper also claims that many communities and previously neglected groups, particularly those in rural areas that have not actively participated in the tourism industry, possess significant tourism resources. It was foreseen that these communities would play a pivotal role in developing rural tourism. Women, in particular, were mentioned as having an important role to play in the development of responsible tourism in rural areas.
P8 - Community-based tourism
A number of studies on nature-based tourism show that considerable positive local outcomes and benefits may flow from community involvement in, and ownership of, such projects. (See Ashley 1998, Viljoen and Naicker 2000 and Ndlovu and Rogerson 2004)
P20, Certain types of tourism, such as budget tourism, could be beneficial to rural areas.
Responsible Tourism Manual for
Department for Environmental Affairs and Tourism,
“Responsible Tourism” is also about enabling local communities to enjoy a better quality of life through increased socio-economic benefits and improved natural resource management. South Africa’s Tourism White Paper (1996) DEAT (1996) The development and promotion of tourism in South Africa, White Paper, Government of South Africa, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism ((www.environment.gov.za) refers specifically to the concept of “Responsible Tourism”, the key elements of which can be defined in terms of1:
Ensuring the active involvement of communities that benefit from tourism, including their participation in planning and decision-making and the establishment of meaningful economic linkages;
5. SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
“Responsible tourism” requires the establishment of trust and effective communication between everyone involved in the tourism encounter. Trust and communication provide the basis for information exchange, cultural understanding and tolerance of difference.
Communities may have numerous representatives and representative structures. For instance, most rural communities fall within the jurisdiction of a traditional authority. Further, all communities will be represented by a democratically elected councillor who represents them at local authority level. Many communities also have elected committees or volunteer committees that deal with certain issues (e.g. policing and services). It may thus be necessary to involve more than one representative in the partnership process.